Crypto Law Profile
S.2281 was a federal crypto market-structure bill covering CFTC/SEC roles, intermediaries, stablecoins, tax, and illicit finance. It was not enacted.
The Lummis-Gillibrand Responsible Financial Innovation Act was a federal digital-asset market-structure bill introduced in the U.S. Senate as S.2281 in the 118th Congress. Sponsored by Sen. Cynthia Lummis, with Sen. Kirsten Gillibrand as original cosponsor, the bill was introduced on July 12, 2023, read twice, and referred to the Senate Committee on Finance. It was not enacted before the 118th Congress ended; this profile therefore treats S.2281 as a dead bill as of January 3, 2025, verified June 4, 2026.
S.2281 was designed to create a federal framework for crypto assets by assigning roles across the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, Securities and Exchange Commission, banking regulators, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Treasury, and FinCEN. The bill’s stated objective was not to legalize all digital-asset activity, but to bring crypto assets within a federal regulatory perimeter while addressing consumer protection, market integrity, stablecoin issuance, taxation, cybersecurity, and illicit-finance risks.
The bill would have expanded CFTC authority over certain spot crypto asset transactions in interstate commerce, subject to exceptions and definitions. It also would have required trading facilities offering markets in crypto assets or payment stablecoins to register with the CFTC as crypto asset exchanges, unless another exclusion applied. The proposed exchange framework included listing standards, anti-manipulation concepts, affiliate supervision, segregation rules, and limits on proprietary trading outside permitted market-making activity.
For SEC-facing issues, S.2281 used the concept of an ancillary asset: generally, a token connected to entrepreneurial or managerial efforts but not itself carrying debt, equity, liquidation, dividend, interest, or similar financial rights. Issuers meeting disclosure conditions would have received a commodity-oriented treatment for the ancillary asset itself, while investment-contract transactions and disclosure obligations would remain within the securities-law framework.
S.2281 would have imposed several intermediary-facing safeguards. Crypto asset intermediaries would have needed to provide cryptographic proof of possession or control of customer assets and obtain annual verification from an independent public accountant. The bill also directed plain-language customer agreements, disclosures about segregation and bankruptcy treatment, dispute-resolution information, fee disclosures, and chief executive attestations for certain customer-facing materials.
The bill also addressed cybersecurity and operational resilience. It would have directed the CFTC and SEC, in consultation with Treasury and the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, to develop cybersecurity guidance for crypto asset intermediaries and to publish customer-facing best practices for account access, fraud prevention, and asset transfers.
S.2281 would have created a federal payment stablecoin framework centered on depository institutions. The text authorized qualifying institutions to issue and redeem payment stablecoins, required high-quality liquid assets equal to at least 100% of outstanding face amount, limited reuse of reserves, and provided for redemption at par. These provisions were proposed only and did not become federal law through S.2281.
The bill also included proposed tax changes, including a limited de minimis exclusion for certain crypto asset gains of $200 or less and broker-reporting amendments. Because the bill failed, those proposed tax provisions should not be treated as current tax rules. Its illicit-finance title addressed money-laundering penalties, anti-money laundering and countering-the-financing-of-terrorism standards, crypto kiosks, mixers and tumblers, sanctions compliance, and a FinCEN innovation laboratory.
Congress.gov lists the latest S.2281 action as an October 26, 2023 Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee hearing. No enacted version of S.2281 appears in the 118th Congress record. Later Senate digital-asset market-structure drafts and committee actions should be treated as related policy developments, not as enactment of S.2281, unless an editor creates a separate profile for those later measures.
Would have given the CFTC jurisdiction over certain interstate spot crypto asset transactions, with exceptions and exclusions.
Would have required trading facilities offering crypto asset or payment stablecoin markets to register with the CFTC, unless excluded.
Would have required cryptographic proof of possession or control, annual accountant verification, and plain-language customer disclosures.
Would have set SEC disclosure conditions for certain ancillary assets and treated qualifying assets as commodities, subject to exceptions.
Would have allowed qualifying depository institutions to issue payment stablecoins backed by at least 100% high-quality liquid assets.
Would have created a limited $200 de minimis gain exclusion and amended broker-reporting rules; neither took effect through S.2281.
Would have addressed AML/CFT standards, kiosks, mixers and tumblers, sanctions compliance, penalties, and a FinCEN innovation lab.
Would have directed CFTC and SEC cybersecurity guidance for intermediaries, with Treasury and CISA consultation.
Sen. Lummis introduced an earlier RFIA version, S.4356, in the 117th Congress.
S.2281 was introduced in the Senate and referred to the Committee on Finance.
Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee hearings were held.
The bill was not enacted before the 118th Congress ended and is treated here as expired.
Consumers, Crypto asset exchanges, Crypto asset intermediaries, Depository institutions, Payment stablecoin issuers, Token issuers
Ancillary Assets, Crypto assets, Payment stablecoins
This profile covers the formally introduced 2023 Senate bill, S.2281, not later Senate market-structure discussion drafts or committee products.
